World Student Community for Sustainable Development

Abstract

Access to clean water has always been very important and this is one of the major issues addressed by ｔhe Millennium Development Goals (MDG) for developing countries. Water problems are best addressed through management of the whole watershed so that a sustainable supply of water and other benefits can be secured. In Ethiopia 85% of the population live on land higher than 1500 m altitude, and in these areas watersheds are vital for maintaining good hydrology. This study investigated the socio–economic challenges and options available for sustainable watershed management in the Gursum area of Eastern Hararghe in Ethiopia. Specifically, the study investigated the relationship between forests, deforestation and water availability, and also assessed stakeholders’ understanding of the watershed environment through the use of open and closed questionnaires. Conservation efforts were evaluated and possible management alternatives were recommended. The results showed that most of the conservation efforts were destroyed after the withdrawal of projects or during times of political instability. The forest cover was declining due to increased demand for fuel, construction materials and expansion of low input agriculture. The major effects of deforestation perceived by local people were soil erosion, climatic change and a shortage of rainfall. Efforts by some international aid organizations were over shadowed by a lack of grassroots level participation of the end users. Local people recommended provision of tree seedlings, construction of water ponds and legal measures to solve the problem of watershed degradation and decline in available water. Moreover, the study showed that most decision-makers have little or no formal education and this makes conventional management intervention difficult. Therefore there is an urgent need to understand the needs and aspiration of the local people and include them in the planning and implementation of conservation activities. To achieve this well-planned environmental education is important and further in-depth investigations of the biophysical and socioeconomic factors are also needed to fully assess the problems. Finally, it is essential that external aid activities are coordinated at the watershed level in order to make the most sustainable use of the meager resources.

1 Back ground and Justification

Watersheds are those land areas that catch rain or snow and drain to specific marshes, streams, rivers, lakes, or to ground water (EPA, 2003). Water is constantly moving within and above the earth in a cycle called the hydrologic cycle and nature recycles the earth’s water supply through this process. This cycle receives energy from the sun and operates continuously. Hydrologic cycle composes of five main components to complete its cycle. Evapotranspiration is the first and account for larger portion of the precipitation than other processes associated with the cycle. The remaining includes condensation, precipitation, infiltration, percolation and runoff. Plants in general and forest in particular affect the cycle directly besides its indirect effect on condensation.

The water on earth supply remains constant, but man is capable of altering the equilibrium. Population increases, rising living standards, and industrial and economic growth have placed greater demands on our natural environment. Our activities can create a hydrologic imbalance and can affect the quantity and quality of natural water resources available to current and future generations. Water uses by households, industries, and farms have increased. People demand clean water at reasonable costs, yet the amount of fresh water is limited and the easily accessible sources have been developed. As the population increases, so will our need to withdraw more water from rivers, lakes and aquifers, threatening local resources and future water supplies. A larger population will not only use more water but will discharge more wastewater. Domestic, agricultural, and industrial wastes, including the intensive use of pesticides, herbicides and fertilizers, often overload water supplies with hazardous chemicals and bacteria. Moreover, poor irrigation practices raise soil salinity and evaporation rates. These factors contribute to a reduction in the availability of potable water, putting even greater pressure on existing water resources.

Human settlement is accompanied by accelerated drainage of water through road drains and sewer systems, which even increases the magnitude of urban flood events. This alters the rates of infiltration, evaporation, and transpiration that would otherwise occur in a natural setting. The replenishing of ground water aquifers does not occur or occurs at a slower rate.

Together, these various effects determine available water and can produce extremely negative effect on river watersheds, lakes, aquifers, and the environment as a whole. Therefore, it is vital to study and protect our precious water resources in order to satisfy the demand and secure the use for future generation.

In Ethiopia 85% of the population live on highlands, above 1500 m altitude (Wolde Mariam 1970). This area account only 45% of the land mass. Early civilization and agricultural extension has already degraded the watersheds as early as 7th century (Bekele 2003). The vegetation cover has declined form around 45% to only 3% of the total landmass (Breitenbach 1963). Gamachu(1977) has showed that there is deficit of precipitation-evapotranspiration balance in the country. In this regard forests play significant role in retaining and stabilizing water balance. However, studies on the socioeconomic aspects are very limited. This urges for thorough investigation of the problems in the watershed areas. Hence, this study tried to address socio–economic challenges and options towards sustainable watershed management with specific reference to Gursum Watershed.

2 Objective of the study

The objective of the study was:

• To investigate the state of forest and availability of water in the area
• To assess the major causes of deforestation and its relation with available water
• To assess people’s perception of the watershed
• To evaluate conservation effort underway and recommend possible alternatives

3. Material and methods

3.1 Description of Study Area

Gursum is found in Eastern Hararghe region of Oromia Regional State of Ethiopia at 9° 20’ 60N latitude, 42° 23’ 60E longitude and 1954m altitudes. The total population is 151, 405), with 91% living in rural areas (CSA 1996). The land holding per household ranges roughly between 0.3 and 1.5 hectares (Zonal Office of Agriculture, 1996 cited on Habtemariam et al 2000).

Map 1: Gursum is found at the Northeastern end of Ethiopian Rift valley

(taken from Alltheweb images)

The mean annual rainfall was 756 mm for the year 1995/96. The average land holding per household is estimated to be about 1.5 hectares (Zonal Office of Agriculture, 1996). The woreda is well known for its erratic rainfall and frequent crop failures. Chat (Chata edulis), sorghum and cattle are the main products in the area. Moreover, there is farm level coffee production. This coffee is one of the finest in the world. The prevailing production system is a crop-based mixed farming system. The market center, Fugnanbira town, has a population of about 15,000 people that depend on the watershed for water and forest products supply. Mount Kundudo commonly known as W-Mountain (a name given after its shape) is the highest mountain in the area with altitude of 2499 meter and is part of the watershed. There are three peasant associations (Pas) with a total of 20, 000 people which depend on the watershed for livelihood.

3.2 Methods

Open and closed type questionnaire was employed to gather socioeconomic data on the watershed. Moreover, offices of Water Development and Utilization, and Agriculture were interviewed to get water and forest information. A total of 60 households, 33 form the PA, and 27 from the town were selected randomly.

3.3 Data analysis

Excel and SPSS were used to analyze the closed type questionnaires. Whereas, the open type questionnaires were summarized using tables. Information gathered through discussion with different stakeholders, surfing the Internet, and personal experience was summarized and discussed.

4. Result and Discussion

4.1 Deforestation and its effect

The woodland vegetation in the area started to decline since the past government has turned its attention from overwhelming afforestation and forest conservation programs to the war with Eritrea. Most of the mountain terraces constructed and trees planted were abandoned, living the forestlands literally bare. The major reason for cutting of trees was demand for fuelwood. This agrees with JICA country report on Ethiopia where biomass energy shares 64% country’s energy supply. The second reason was a need for construction material. With no other alternative at hand people are forced to “illegally†cut trees from the natural forest. There was also a tragic episode that left thousands of hectares of Acacia saligna cut at once. A person who claimed to inherit the land came from exile in Somalia right after the fall of Derg and divided the land with the forest and sell for individuals for construction of houses. Moreover, during the capture of the town by the soldiers of the new government, very old trees were rampantly cut for feulwood without thinking its far-reaching effect. The respondents said that deforestation has caused soil erosion (29.3%), shortage of rainfall (20%) and climatic hazard and small scale desertification (18.6%). Some of the respondents also were able to perceive the effect on climatic change at local level. Interestingly, some of the respondents try to relate the shortage of rainfall with deforestation (see Graph 1).

Graph 1. People’s perception of the effect of deforestation was varied.

SE= soil erosion, SR=shortage of rainfall, CH= climatic hazard and desertification, CD=cause of drought, WD=Wild life decline, RFP=Reduction in forest products, DP=Decline of production, AP=air pollution, EA= Extension of agriculture, IL=impact of livelihood, SG=Shortage of grazing area

4.2 Suggested Solutions to Deforestation By the people

Most of the people were willing to participate in the restoration effort. However, people wanted to do it from the planning to benefit sharing. They were found to be reluctant to passively implement already planned actions. They are ready to plant trees in their farm land and garden if provided with seedlings of there preferred species. Planting of trees in deforested areas, construction of water ponds for watering the planted trees were among the suggested solutions to address the decline of forest cover in the area. Some of the respondent suggested legal measures against illegal cuttings and encroachment in to the forest (See Table 2).

Tabel 2. People suggested different solutions to solve forest degradation.

4.3 Species Preference

There is a wide spread illegal tree cutting. As a result of tree cover decline people were forced to use any kind of tree available. Nevertheless, there is strong preference for some tree species when found. Eucalyptus spp. and Juniperus procera were highly preferred for fuelwood and construction. Cordia africana which is used for construction of agricultural materials and household furniture was among the most preferred species (Graph 2). They selectively cut from the forest or prefer to plant them when they get seedlings.

4.4 Forest and Drought

Ethiopia has suffered recurrent drought and ensuing famine. The study area is frequently struck by drought and resulting famine. Forest are perennial and more drought tolerant than annual agricultural crops. Among respondents who said forest has contribution in alleviating drought problems, 81% said forest products served them as a means of income during drought seasons. Other 9.5% said forests ameliorate underground water. And the remaining 9.5% said forest mitigate drought by improving precipitation and protecting soil from erosion.

4.5 Water condition

Shortage of water is a very critical problem in eastern Ethiopia. A recent shortage of clean water in Harar city, 76km from the study area, has warned the whole region of the eminence of the problem. African Development Bank (ADB), for example, approved USD 27.78 million loans for water supply and sanitation project in the city. However, this study showed that the problem is more critical in Gursum. On one hand, the town is given least attention by the government in terms of investment or well planned development. On the other hand, availability of drinking and irrigation water is seasonal i.e., during rainy season there is abundance of water but it can’t be stored for drier seasons because of lack of storage facilities. Totally there are about five hundred tape water pipes in the town and about ten central public distribution pipes, which serve people without personal pipeline. The rural residents use water directly from the springs. Most people (88.3%) agreed that the quantity of available water is decreasing in the last decade. While only 3.3% said it has not changing, there was no one who said the condition is improving. Furthermore, the water source even for the present available water is not well studied. There is no quantitative study on the underground water, all management actions, if any, were taken based on mere speculations. Presently the management strategy is just using the water when it is available. Furthermore, all the water wells in the town and vicinity are drying. Moreover, many of the streams are drying up. Some local streams have already dried up. Among them were locally known as Ayere, Ijosele, Kalib and Dollis. These small streams were used for watering plantations and nurseries, drinking and irrigation.

4.6 Land holding Satisfaction

The average land holding in the area is estimated to be 0.3-1.5 hectare per household (Zonal Office of Agriculture, 1996). This study showed that only 3.3% of the respondents were well satisfied with their present land holdings (see Graph 3). More than two third of the respondents said they were not satisfied by the size of their land holding. This dissatisfaction has a exacerbated the watershed problem because it is the only resource they have to extend their agricultural activity.

Graph 3. The majorities of the respondents were not satisfied with their present land holding and are pessimistic about trend of water resource availability.

LS=land satisfaction (3=well satisfied, 2=satisfied, 1=not satisfied), WC=water condition (3=improving, 2=no change, 1=deteriorating). Residence (1 for town and 0 for rural residents), Age in years (1=<=30, 2=31-40, 3=41-50, 4=51-60, and 5=>61).

4.7 Level of Education and perception of people towards watershed conservation

The level of education and availability of information is related with the perception of people on the environment regardless of their action thereof. One of the problems of traditional society is they have little information about the large-scale cumulated effect of their local actions. The study showed that most of the people have not attended formal education Graph 4). Moreover, more respondents who reside in rural areas and female respondents had little access or opportunity to formal education. This impeded conservation endeavors. Level of education showed clear distinction below and above age 40 years. Respondents at age between 31 and 40 years were found to be relatively educated. This shows that there is a hope of creating positive impact on future conservation efforts. The study also indicated that those people with access to education have shown more interest to environment than the other.

Graph 4. Most people in the rural area were found to have little access to formal education.

4.8 Reforestation and conservation efforts

4.8.1 Efforts By the local government

Conservation effort of any degree of technical competence could bring little impact unless the local government has agreed and wholeheartedly support. During the past military regime, which was known by its nature of mass mobilization, the local administration used to mobilize the community for tree planting activities. The present pipeline was drawn from the source to the main storage near the town by the community participation in providing labor service (where the writer took part in his teenage). Currently, the administration has shown little interest in the management of the watershed.

4.8.2 Efforts by Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

There was food-for-work program in the area before 1993 run under WFP, UNDP and CARE Ethiopia. This program was meant to involve the people in the conservation activities. These efforts, however, achieved little because of their top-down approach where the need and aspiration of the end users were not considered. Moreover, the priorities and approaches by the project initiators and the government were not discussed with the people. Absence of participation paid-off when the military government was overthrown, whereby almost all planted trees were cut with no sense of ownership. Furthermore, the hillside terraces that once where cosmopolitan in the mountainous areas, were destroyed. Another initiative has been taken by some Red Cross America to address water problems. Red Cross America formulated a project to improve the availability and sanitation of water by rehabilitating existing water sources, constructing new water sources and establishing and strengthening community water committees. The project has envisaged constructing one surface dam, two ponds and 19 hand-dug wells. The project also planned to raise public awareness through community education on use of safe water, storage practices and basic hygiene (Red Cross America, 2003). This is a good beginning to address the problem in the area. However, it can only address the problem only temporarily. This project repeat the long standing problem of the other initiatives where the whole project depends merely on objectives that emanate from the donors, that it doesn’t incorporate the need and aspiration of the end users. The project was also planned for one year and it didn’t suggest a way to sustain the effort.

4.8.3 Efforts by government offices

In Ethiopia, forestry related activities are undertaken under the ministry of agriculture. Nonetheless, most of the activities are agricultural, with very little or no emphasis to forestry. Ironically, forestry graduates were involved in technical agricultural routines for which they have little professional competence. In the past the office of agriculture was involved in seedling distribution, planting and construction of hillside terraces in the watershed area. By the time this study was undertaken there was no forestry related activity in the area. All offices are focusing on agricultural activities to accomplish the grand policy objective of the government of Ethiopia which is Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI). The objective has misled people at different level to ignore the danger of deteriorating environment. The office of Water Development and Utilization, which is responsible for water related issues, was busy with distribution of water as it avails to them. They have got serious problems to satisfy the demand of people in the town during drier seasons. The office has only one 100m3 capacity storage for the whole town. According to the office in the last five years the ground water pool was decreasing. Moreover, the only water source is thought to be found in a place called Fafem that is 38km from the town. However, their duty is limited to reporting the problem to the higher officials.

4.9 Conflict of resource use

There was resource use conflict in the area. During the dry seasons when the quantity of available water decreases, farmers sometimes cut the pipe lines that transport water to the town and divert the water to their crop lands. The only intervention to solve the problem in the past was just use of power by the previous military government to force farmers let the water go. The town dwellers did not thought that they are responsible for the management of the watershed. They only consider themselves default users of the benefit. People and government in the town are reluctant to take part in the management of the watershed. Partly this has emanated from their lack of understanding of the interrelationship between the watershed and the water they use.

5 Conclusion and recommendations

A sustainable use of the watershed resources in Ethiopia will remain a challenge as the country struggle to come out of poverty. The state of vegetation in the watershed is deteriorating. Farmers are not satisfied with their present land holding, which will presumably lead to forest encroachment. The problem of availability of water for household use and irrigation is becoming critical. The level of understanding of people in the town and the rural area about the consequence of their action on the environment is very low. There is no environmental related education in the area. However, younger people have relatively better access to education than the older once which is promising for intervention in educating and raising the level of awareness of the people. The conservation initiatives in the past by different parties were found to be unsuccessful because most of them were centrally planned and imposed. Furthermore, responsible government offices had little competence in terms of infrastructure, capital and trained personnel to address the problem. There is little interest or awareness on the watershed from the local government. In order to mitigate the problem of watershed and related problems the following points are recommended:

The needs and aspiration of the farmers, who live near the forest and the people in the town, who use the water, should be well addressed before implementing any project.
There should be consistent environmental education for development workers and the community at all level. There is a need to focus on women who are taking most of the activities in and around their homes. In the sensitization endeavor the benefits and responsibilities of the rural farmers and town dwellers should be clearly discussed.
There is a need to study the present water source and potential alternatives before the problems become irreversible.
There is a need to undertake an in depth investigation of the biophysical and more socioeconomic aspect of vegetation and water related. Last but not least, improvement of farming system and livelihood of the rural people should be addressed in solving the problem and achieving sustainable watershed management.

6 References

• Bekele, M. 2003. Forest Property Rights, the Role of the state, and Institutional Exigency: The Ethiopian Experience. Doctoral Dissertation. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Uppsala, Sweden.
• Breitenbach, F.V. The Indigenous Trees of Ethiopia. 2nd ed.Ethiopian Forestry Association. Addis Ababa.
  Central Statistical Authority (CSA), 1992. Report on the National Rural Nutrition Survey, Core Module. CSA, Addis Ababa.
• Central Statistical Authority (CSA). 1996. The Population and Housing Census of Ethiopia. Results for Oromia Region. Vol. I: Part VI. Statistical Report on Population Size of Kebelles. CSA, Addis Ababa
• EPA. 2003. www.epa.gov. Note on Hydrology.
• Gamachu, Daniel. 1977. Aspects of Climate and Water Budget in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa University Press. Addis Ababa.
  Habtemariam, K., Workneh A., Zewdie H/G., Tefera G/M. 2003. Smallhoder Goat Production And Individual Food Security: The Case Of Women Focused Dairy Goat Development Project In Eastern Hararghe Of Ethiopia, Langstun University web site Red Cross Society. 2003.Gursum Woreda water sanitation project. www.redcross.org
• Walta Information. 2002. ADF Approves 27.78 US Dollars To Finance Harar Water Project. www.walta.com, September 5.
• Wolde Mariam, Mesfin. 1970. An Atlas of Ethiopia. Rev. ed. Addis Ababa.