A developing country approach
by Neha Menon
Urban sprawl has been recognized as a problem that faces the developed world. There has been a growing concern about this issue among planners, policy makers, environmentalists, citizen groups, etc. As the developing world urbanizes, more often than not, the model of development chosen is the Western one. Most developing countries follow their erstwhile colonial masters into development. While this model does have its positive aspects, it also has a large number of fallouts — one of the most important being an increasingly consumption oriented economy. Developing countries are fast moving along the same unsustainable consumption path. As they develop, the ratio of urban to rural land is increasing. By 2030, it is projected that almost 60% of the worldâ€TMs population will be urban. In such a context, it is important to realize that developing countries are also inheriting a large number of developed country problems.
The problem of urban sprawl is not restricted to the developed world. It exists in the developing world also. However, the indicators are different as are the causes for sprawl. Developing country sprawl is largely a result of necessity — people move to the city in search of better employment and opportunity. This leads to a burgeoning city sprawl well beyond the limits of the city. One of the main differences between urban sprawl in developed and developing countries is that in developed countries, people do not want to live in the cities — they choose to move out. However, in developing countries, people move out because there is not enough space for them to live in the city.
This paper attempts to understand the problem of sprawl in the developing world and provide some solutions that address the root causes of the issue.
Introduction
The onset of the new millennium has seen, for the first time, more people living in urban areas than rural [1]. This is a rising trend seen the world over, especially in developing countries. Though once seen as islands, cities can no longer be thought to stand apart. As it becomes clear that the world is unquestionably a globalised one, it is also becoming clear that it is increasingly an urbanized one. Three billion people live in cities today, and it is projected that by 2030, nearly 60% of the worldâ€TMs population will be urban [2]. Also, estimates say that by 2030, most of the cities in the list of the top thirty will be from developing countries. The current worldwide rate for urbanization is 0.8%, ranging from 0.3% for developed countries to 1.6% for Africa [3].
The issues associated with urbanization in developing countries pose a challenge, merely because the dynamic and the context in which they occur are very different from those in which the now-developed countries urbanized. Therefore, the solutions proposed must take into account the differences — and adapt to the specific situation that they are being applied in. Unfortunately, this is rarely the case. As a result, developing countries end up further complicating the issue, instead of resolving it. Often, the solution is a short-term one, and the problem persists. This has led to unsustainable patterns of growth in the Third World. The basic problem with developing country growth strategies is that they are usually modeled on the Western model of development. There is a growing realization that this pattern of growth is highly unsustainable and that there is a need for alternative, more sustainable methods of growth. If the entire world were to consume resources at the same rate as the USA, we would need three planets to satisfy the demand [4].
Cities in the developing world are growing in both size and number. However, they cannot expand indefinitely. Every kind of growth has a limiting resource — in this case, the limiting factor is land. As the rate of urbanization increases, the patterns of land use are changing. Cities are using land that was formerly used as agricultural land or was habitat for biodiversity. These changes in land use patterns are characteristic of the phenomenon of urban sprawl. According to the Vermont Forum on Sprawl:
‘Sprawl is dispersed, auto-dependent development outside of compact urban and village centers, along highways, and in rural countrysideâ€TM
This interpretation of the term is based on observations made in developed countries and is indicative of the fact that sprawl is usually seen as a problem that affects developed countries, primarily the USA. This is not the case. Urban sprawl is increasingly becoming an issue in developing countries as well. This has led to a change in land use patterns and the spatial cover of cities. It promotes inefficient use of land, energy as well encroachment on agricultural land. This change in land use patterns is easiest to observe on the periphery of the cities [5]. As cities continue to experience unplanned growth, the built area at the city limits is increasing. This is fragmenting land, adversely affecting agricultural land, green space, ground water, etc. This is also causing a negative impact on conservation of habitat. There are a number of definitions that have been put forth to explain the concept of sprawl. However, most of them cater to the developed country notion of sprawl, like the one stated above. Cities in developing countries face a problem of unregulated and unplanned growth beyond city limits. Urban sprawl in the developing world can be seen as a spread of new development on vacant land, (which has not been used for urban purposes) as a result of increased population within the city. It is not a problem of large sprawling cities — quite the contrary. The cities are more compact than in the developed world. However, the demand for space and inefficient use of land within cities leads to sprawling growth.
However, since the indicators of sprawl are different from those in the developed world, it is often assumed that sprawl is a problem only in developed countries.
Causes of sprawl
Some of the more generic causes of sprawl are population growth, increasing incomes, subsidization of infrastructure investments like roads etc., and physical constraints on development [6]. There is one basic difference between the causes of sprawl in a developed country and that in a developing country — sprawl in developed countries is usually a matter of preference. It may have begun with the industrial revolution, and was later reinforced by government policies. An important factor contributing to sprawl is the fact that the incomes of the people in developed countries are extremely high, as compared to those in developing countries. This facilitates the move from urban to suburban areas. People have come to prefer moving to open spaces at reasonable distances from cities. It has now become an inherent pattern of life for a large majority of people, and is therefore difficult to change. Another problem this has led to is the growth pf dependence on automobiles. The entire culture in developed countries (especially the USA) is centered around automobile use. This coupled with government policies that encourage the move to sub-urban areas, and subsidize the use of private transport has fueled urban sprawl in the developed world to a great extent. Solutions and approaches to deal with sprawl in developed countries must deal with changing attitudes and lifestyles of people. This is easier said than done.
The story in developing countries is a different. In a developing country, sprawl is fueled more by necessity. A lot of the underlying causal factors are historical, and have built up over a number of years. Sprawl, in this case, is concentrated around certain pockets of dense human population — the major metros. The causes of sprawl here too can be traced to historical reasons — most often to the colonial legacy that most developing countries have. Major metros were developed as administrative centers, transportation hubs, where people from the hinterland came in search of employment and stayed on. These became central cities after the colonial masters left. The growth of these major metros was unplanned and gradual. This trend has continued into the post-colonial period too. Most of these metro cities remain the dominant source of employment, education, etc. and therefore people still migrate here from the rural areas. Since the majority of the population is poor and in need of employment, they usually move to the metros to look for a better standard of life. This has led to burgeoning centers of urbanization that are growing outward, away from the city centre. However, as these countries urbanize at rapid rates, these pockets are increasing and so is the problem of sprawl. Another key issue here is the problem of population growth. Most of the developing countries are at that stage in their demographic transition when their fertility rate is rising and the mortality rate is declining. Thus the population is growing and will continue to grow for at least the next fifty years. This will have a significant impact on rural-urban migration, and therefore contribute to sprawl.
An interesting observation about sprawl in developed and developing countries can be made from the ecological footprint analyses of countries [7]. This is the application of the 80-20 rule. The proportion of people moving away from cities in the developed world constitute a small per cent of the world population in numbers, but are majority consumers of world resources. However, in developing countries, those proportions are reversed — there are a greater number of people causing sprawl in terms of sheer proportion of world population. At the same time, they use a small proportion of world resources
Probable solutions
Before we propose any solution, it is most important to understand that urban sprawl is a highly contentious issue. Even in developed countries, where it has been established that sprawl does exist, there is a school of thought that believes that urban sprawl is not a problem. There are extremely persuasive arguments in favor of this belief. It is therefore extremely difficult to convince people in developing countries, where the patterns of sprawl are very different, that sprawl is an issue that needs attention. Another pertinent fact is that developing countries have a host of problems that may seem more pressing — such as provision of employment and economic growth. Thus, the solutions that are proposed for sprawl in developing countries need to take this into account. They have to be economically viable, keeping in mind financial constraints. They also have to be in line with the broader goals of the country to ensure that they are implemented.
The sprawl in developing countries is fueled more by necessity than by preference. The people living on the periphery of the city are mainly rural migrants who have come to the city in search of employment. The problem that needs to be addressed therefore is the creation of employment opportunities away from the major metros. Most of these major cities are overburdened with rural migrants. There is no effective way of checking this migration, unless incentives are provided for them not to move. Most of the employment in rural areas is agricultural or dependent on agriculture. This often tends to be seasonal and therefore unreliable. There are a number of small towns and cities that are closer to the hinterland that could be developed as potential sources of employment for these people. This would reduce the burden on the larger cities and create an alternative source of work, thereby addressing the problems of unemployment and sprawl.
While this would address the root cause of the problem, it will be a gradual solution that will take time. Also, it cannot be implemented by itself. There needs to be a more holistic approach to the issue of sprawl. Creation of alternative employment centres is one solution, but it does not address the problem that is already facing the cities in developing countries. The urban sprawl that they are facing needs to be arrested. A number of solutions have been proposed as possible options. However, it must be understood that while all of these are essential, none can solve the problem if implemented alone. Each of these solutions needs a corresponding change in policy and measures in other areas if it is to be effective.
In spite of the fact that the patterns of sprawl in developed and developing countries are very different, the solutions proposed are similar. These have to be modified, no doubt, to fit into the context of the developing world. Discussed below are a few solutions that address the issue of sprawl:
- Brownfield redevelopment Brownfield redevelopment or the reuse of existing land within the city is a solution that may be effectively applied to address the problem of urban sprawl. There are number of abandoned building sites such as old schools, industrial land, parking space that may be reused. These would provide alternatives to using virgin land outside of city limits. This attacks the problem of city sprawl encroaching on land outside the city — agricultural or otherwise. While this has been mostly suggested as a solution in developed countries, it would be relatively easy to implement in developing countries as well. Most of the people who live outside the city limits commute into the city to work. Developing the land within the city limits would allow these people to move into the city, and therefore reduce the spread beyond city limits. Most of these areas are located within the central business district and would therefore be very easy to develop from a real estate perspective. The problem with this is that there are zoning policies in place that do not permit such development. A policy change is therefore required. The city planning council needs to encourage the reuse of such sites by providing incentives for developers to use these and also by providing disincentives for developing sites outside city limits.
- Creation of a mass transit system City sprawl is often a result of unplanned growth. As the city expands, there is an increased need for transport. Since most cities do not have a well-developed mass transit system, dependence on private means of transport increases. As can be seen from developed country experiences, this is a very difficult barrier to overcome. The advantages that are provided by a private means of transport — i.e. the automobile, are highlighted by the fact that the mass transit system in most cities is non-existent or very poorly developed. It often does not serve all areas of the city. As a result, most people increasingly find it a necessity to own a private means of transport to allow them to commute. Therefore, there is very little incentive then to try and live within the city limits. The presence of a mass transit system would provide a reason for people to live near transport hubs. The increased dependence on cars creates still other requirements. With increases in the number of cars used, there is need for adequate parking space. Land within the city that is devoted to parking could be put to better uses. There are also environmental issues that come into the picture — increased air pollution, contribution to green house gases, low energy efficiency of cars, etc. Another problem associated with automobiles in developing countries is that owning a car is seen as a status symbol. This is a psychological barrier that is very difficult to overcome. Merely instituting a mass transit system is not enough. There have to be concurrent measures that discourage the use of cars within the city. These could be in the form of more expensive, reduced parking space. It could be encouraged by creating pedestrian areas, promoting the use of alternative means of transport such as bicycles. There are a number of developing country cities that have effectively implemented mass transit systems — Curitiba, Brazil and Bogotá, Colombia; this dispels the myth that mass transit is an expensive option that cannot be implemented in developing countries. However, one does run the risk of encouraging sprawl along transport corridors. This would require effective management and continuous monitoring.
- Concentrating growth This is a solution that has many advocates, both in developed and developing countries. It is more popularly known as Smart growth. The idea behind Smart growth is to create compact cities. This may be through a variety of methods – promoting the reuse of land within the cities, as opposed to using virgin land; moving the concentration of population back towards the city centre and not pushing it outward, away from the core. Though this is a solution that would address the key issue of land use; there are problems with this approach. It cannot be achieved without policy measures that support such growth — such as instituting mass transit, providing incentives for real estate to develop areas within the city, possible relocation of the manufacturing sector, etc. These are often difficult to implement. More often than not, it is easier to begin with smaller measures and move to a bigger solution. Therefore, the creation of more compact cities should be a final goal for city planners, not a starting point. Policies that encourage mass transit, pedestrian-friendly areas and do not create an automobile-dependent culture need to be put into place.
- Addressing the key issue Most often, the cause of sprawl in developing countries is not the fact that people choose to move away from the cities. Paradoxically, it is because people choose to move to cities that sprawl occurs. Therefore what needs to be addressed is the reason for the migration. There are a variety of reasons for this — in search of employment, better standard of living, and education being a few of them. These are the issues that need to be addressed. Merely providing a solution to sprawl in cities is only a piecemeal approach. The pull factors that attract migrants to cities need to be addressed also. Improving efficiency of land use will not be effective in the long run if migration continues. Therefore, policies need to be put in place that take the migration away from the major metros to other cities. This will also help create alternative locations closer to the places from where people migrate.
Conclusion
This paper has attempted to look at the problem of urban sprawl in developing countries as compared with developed country sprawl and provide pertinent solutions. It is clear that sprawl is increasingly becoming an issue that is associated with urbanization — whether it takes place in the developed world or the developing. However, since the context in which it takes place is very different, so are the patterns of urban sprawl. Developing countries do not have the same causes and indicators of sprawl, as do developed countries. This has led to the belief that sprawl is a problem of the developed world, which is far from true. It does exist, and if not checked, will lead to consequences that are far worse than those seen in the developed world today.
As is the case with any problem, solutions have to be proposed that are suitable for the context in which they are to be applied. They have to be modified and adapted keeping in mind the constraints that are faced by a developing country. The solutions that are proposed for developing countries can be applied to developing countries, in this case. However, they address different problems, and might even work more effectively. Also, it needs to be understood that the solutions need to take a more holistic approach. These will not succeed if they do not address a number of areas simultaneously. A piecemeal approach may provide a short-term solution, but will fail in the longer run. It also vital to understand the broader issues that are the underlying problem. Without resolving these, it will be difficult to provide a long-term solution to the issue of sprawl.
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the input provided by Ellen Brennan-Galvin at Yale University for her ideas and suggestions. I would also like to thank Juan C. Espinosa for helping me formulate my ideas and going over the drafts of this paper.
- Neha Menon, Yale University, USA
References
http://www.ias.unu.edu/proceedings/icibs/ecocity03/papers/gonzales2/
http://www.ecouncil.ac.cr/rio/focus/report/english/footprint/ranking.htm
http://www.undp.org/pppue/about/urban.htm
State of the Worldâ€TMs Cities Report, UNHabitat. http://www.unhabitat.org/Istanbul+5/statereport1.htm Wackernagel and Rees; Our Ecological Footprint
http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/urban/sprawl/urbans0004.htm
http://chesapeake.towson.edu/
http://www.ecouncil.ac.cr/rio/focus/report/english/footprint/ranking.htm
Footnotes
[1] http://www.undp.org/pppue/about/urban.htm
[2] State of the Worldâ€TMs Cities Report, UNHabitat. http://www.unhabitat.org/Istanbul+5/statereport1.htm
[3] Ibid
[4] Our Ecological Footprint; Wackernagel and Rees
[5] http://www.gisdevelopment.net/application/urban/sprawl/urbans0004.htm
[6] http://chesapeake.towson.edu/
[7] http://www.ecouncil.ac.cr/rio/focus/report/english/footprint/ranking.htm
Fri, May 7, 2004
Vision Journal